sustainable agriculture
sustainable agriculture pdf
conventional agriculture
agriculture durable
organic farming
sustainable agriculture
The Main Aspects for Sustainable Soil Fertility Management :
Monitoring soil nitrogen through; Minimizing soluble N losses, avoid ammonia gas formed by denitrifying bacteria to escape, use of organic N sources, mixed arable /livestock systems, maximum reliance on legumes for biological nitrogen fixation and
minimum reliance on purchased manures. The use of on farm manures as a means of recycling nutrients within the system, and for a range of other purposes including crop protection, not simply as a straight substitute for conventional fertilizers. The use of any manures limited to a quantity equivalent to that produced by livestock at a rate of 2.5-3 livestock units per hectare . The application of manures targeted at those points in the rotation where there is maximum nutrient off take, especially potash (e.g vegetables) ( Nicolas Lampkin, 1994) .
Storage of manures under cover (fixed or temporary) and / or in situations where runoff can be collected and utilized. Ploughing and seeding either in early autumn or preferably and when conditions allow, in late winter or spring
The use of green manures in combination with autumn sown cereals, or as a cover crop for the winter, so that nitrogen mineralized in the winter is taken up by the crop/green manure and not left liable to leaching
The soil should never be left bare over the winter
Judicious use of crop residues (e.g. straw) to lock up nitrogen in the autumn. (Regis D.Voss and William Shrader, 1984).
Making good compost
Composting, as has already been indicated, has a wide range of objectives. If composted farmyard manure is a appropriate to the farming system, and the full benefits of compost are to be obtained, then a knowledge of the composting process is essential. In the compost heap the temperature and pH development during the composting process, which may be divided into four stages known as mesophilic, thermophilic, cooling - down and maturing. Initially, the mesophilic strains of microorganisms, which are present on the organic waste or in the atmosphere, start to decompose the materials; heat is given off and the temperature rises. The pH falls as organic acids are produced. Above 40°C, the thermophilic strains take over and the temperature rises to 60°C, where the fungi become deactivated. Above this temperature, the reaction is kept going by the actinomycetes and spore forming bacteria. In this high temperature phase, the more readily degradable substances such as sugar, starches, fats and proteins are rapidly consumed; the pH becomes alkaline as ammonia is liberated from the proteins. The reaction rate decreases as the more resistant materials are attacked; the heap then enters the cooling down phase. As the temperature falls. The attack the cellulose. Later, the mesophilic strains of microorganisms re-invade. This process occurs fairly rapidly, over a few weeks. The final stage, maturing, requires several months,( Rynk,R.1992).
Objectives of composting :
* Suppression of unpleasant odours.
* Improvement of hygienic condition.
* Reduction of the germination capacity of weeds.
* Maintenance and improvement of manurial value.
* Increase of the biological activity of soils.
* Positive influence on plant quality.
* Minimum loss of nutrients during application.
* Minimum additional investment expenditures.
* Acceptable working conditions.
* Minimum external energy requirements with regard to processing and use.
Shelter :
Heaps of Compost need to be sheltered from the direct sun & rain Plastic sheet, straw or old compost-soil materials may be also used as a cover Composting near the Farmyard to avoid NUTRIENT losses
Turning /Inverting the Compost Heap :
Maximum intervals should not exeed one month ander the Mediterranean Condition
Maturity ;
Under Egyptian condition compost is ripe 3-4 months, then ready to use with C/N ratio of 15. Temperature dose not rise more than 38 oC when compost is mature .
Nitrogen Loss as Ammonia (6-8 weeks ).
40% losses from cold stored Farm Yard Manure.
10% losses aerobically from composted Farm Yard Manure.
Same yield can be obtained with only quarter the amount of compost compared with Farm Yard Manure.
Compost contains growth promoting, and disease controlled substances.
APPLIED RESEARCHES & TECHNIQUES.
EFFECTS OF USING WATER EXTRACTS OF COMPOST AND ORGANIC MATERIALS ON SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION.
The aim of work is to obtain a number of complete soluble compost extract rich in macro-nutrients which can be fertigated safely through modern irrigation system and evaluate their effects on soil fertility and potato (cv. Sieglinde) growth, under organic farming system. Three materials were treated with water to obtain the following dilution ratios: Farm Compost 1:5 (FC5); Farm Compost 1:20 (FC20); Farm Compost + Guano 0.75: 0.25: 5 (FCG). Guano 0.25: 5 (G) and Commercial Compost 1: 10 (CC). The release of the nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg) from the aforementioned treatments was monitored as a function of time. The effect of dilution, C/N ratio of the amendments, and Guano additions to compost were determined. (Ahmed H. El Naggar, 2002).
During 10days of extraction, the release of nutrients proceeds gradually, starting after one hour and reaching its maximum at about 8 days extraction. Also EC and pH values of the solutions increased from the beginning of the extraction up to 3 days.
Results revealed a general increase in macro-nutrients (N, P and K) in potato plant leaves, stems and roots, as well as in the growth parameters. The treatment FCG shows the highest tuber yields (49.78 ton/ha) for potato plant in respect to control (16.44 ton/ha) whereas treatments FCG and G also promote an increase in tuber nitrates content (198, 243 mg kg-1 F. W., respectively). Analyses of soil organic matter and soil available nutrients were not significantly affected by the various treatments.
IMPROVING COMPOST QUALITY FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION.
A field experiment was conducted at ALHODA organic farm, Ismaillia Governorate, Egypt during the summer of 2002 to study the effect of different organic composted materials on the yield and nutrient contents of squash plant, as well as, soil nutrient levels (Ahmed G. El Gharably 2002).
Cow manure, chicken manure and crop residues were aerobically piled after screening, curing and grinding processes, then mixed in a ratio of 40 %, 20 % and 40 %, respectively. The pile has been divided into three parts, animal hoof and bone meal were separately applied to two portions of the pile and the third was left as a control without any addition. Mixture of rock phosphate and orthoclase was added to the bone meal and animal hood portions, separately in same quantities. The main objective of this experiment was to improve the compost quality that ALHODA farm uses by introducing new animal residues (bone meal and animal hoof) to the farm compost.
Three compost mixtures were prepared then incorporated to the sandy soil rows after 6 month composting at a rate of 20 tons/fed. Half of the experimental site was sprayed with effective microorganisms culture (EM). Treatments were replicated three times in a completely randomized block design. Soil samples were collected after 4 and 6 weeks from planting, and squash yield was also estimated. Some chemical properties of the soil were analyzed (pH, EC and O.M.). Also, N, P, K, Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu levels were determined. Meanwhile, plant samples were taken at the referred periods, dried, ground and digested to determine N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu. Also, compost materials were analyzed for their nutrient levels. The obtained results could be summarized as the following:
sustainable agriculture pdf
conventional agriculture
agriculture durable
organic farming
Monitoring soil nitrogen through; Minimizing soluble N losses, avoid ammonia gas formed by denitrifying bacteria to escape, use of organic N sources, mixed arable /livestock systems, maximum reliance on legumes for biological nitrogen fixation and
minimum reliance on purchased manures. The use of on farm manures as a means of recycling nutrients within the system, and for a range of other purposes including crop protection, not simply as a straight substitute for conventional fertilizers. The use of any manures limited to a quantity equivalent to that produced by livestock at a rate of 2.5-3 livestock units per hectare . The application of manures targeted at those points in the rotation where there is maximum nutrient off take, especially potash (e.g vegetables) ( Nicolas Lampkin, 1994) .
Storage of manures under cover (fixed or temporary) and / or in situations where runoff can be collected and utilized. Ploughing and seeding either in early autumn or preferably and when conditions allow, in late winter or spring
The use of green manures in combination with autumn sown cereals, or as a cover crop for the winter, so that nitrogen mineralized in the winter is taken up by the crop/green manure and not left liable to leaching
The soil should never be left bare over the winter
Judicious use of crop residues (e.g. straw) to lock up nitrogen in the autumn. (Regis D.Voss and William Shrader, 1984).
Making good compost
Composting, as has already been indicated, has a wide range of objectives. If composted farmyard manure is a appropriate to the farming system, and the full benefits of compost are to be obtained, then a knowledge of the composting process is essential. In the compost heap the temperature and pH development during the composting process, which may be divided into four stages known as mesophilic, thermophilic, cooling - down and maturing. Initially, the mesophilic strains of microorganisms, which are present on the organic waste or in the atmosphere, start to decompose the materials; heat is given off and the temperature rises. The pH falls as organic acids are produced. Above 40°C, the thermophilic strains take over and the temperature rises to 60°C, where the fungi become deactivated. Above this temperature, the reaction is kept going by the actinomycetes and spore forming bacteria. In this high temperature phase, the more readily degradable substances such as sugar, starches, fats and proteins are rapidly consumed; the pH becomes alkaline as ammonia is liberated from the proteins. The reaction rate decreases as the more resistant materials are attacked; the heap then enters the cooling down phase. As the temperature falls. The attack the cellulose. Later, the mesophilic strains of microorganisms re-invade. This process occurs fairly rapidly, over a few weeks. The final stage, maturing, requires several months,( Rynk,R.1992).
Objectives of composting :
* Suppression of unpleasant odours.
* Improvement of hygienic condition.
* Reduction of the germination capacity of weeds.
* Maintenance and improvement of manurial value.
* Increase of the biological activity of soils.
* Positive influence on plant quality.
* Minimum loss of nutrients during application.
* Minimum additional investment expenditures.
* Acceptable working conditions.
* Minimum external energy requirements with regard to processing and use.
Shelter :
Heaps of Compost need to be sheltered from the direct sun & rain Plastic sheet, straw or old compost-soil materials may be also used as a cover Composting near the Farmyard to avoid NUTRIENT losses
Turning /Inverting the Compost Heap :
Maximum intervals should not exeed one month ander the Mediterranean Condition
Maturity ;
Under Egyptian condition compost is ripe 3-4 months, then ready to use with C/N ratio of 15. Temperature dose not rise more than 38 oC when compost is mature .
Nitrogen Loss as Ammonia (6-8 weeks ).
40% losses from cold stored Farm Yard Manure.
10% losses aerobically from composted Farm Yard Manure.
Same yield can be obtained with only quarter the amount of compost compared with Farm Yard Manure.
Compost contains growth promoting, and disease controlled substances.
APPLIED RESEARCHES & TECHNIQUES.
EFFECTS OF USING WATER EXTRACTS OF COMPOST AND ORGANIC MATERIALS ON SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION.
The aim of work is to obtain a number of complete soluble compost extract rich in macro-nutrients which can be fertigated safely through modern irrigation system and evaluate their effects on soil fertility and potato (cv. Sieglinde) growth, under organic farming system. Three materials were treated with water to obtain the following dilution ratios: Farm Compost 1:5 (FC5); Farm Compost 1:20 (FC20); Farm Compost + Guano 0.75: 0.25: 5 (FCG). Guano 0.25: 5 (G) and Commercial Compost 1: 10 (CC). The release of the nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg) from the aforementioned treatments was monitored as a function of time. The effect of dilution, C/N ratio of the amendments, and Guano additions to compost were determined. (Ahmed H. El Naggar, 2002).
During 10days of extraction, the release of nutrients proceeds gradually, starting after one hour and reaching its maximum at about 8 days extraction. Also EC and pH values of the solutions increased from the beginning of the extraction up to 3 days.
Results revealed a general increase in macro-nutrients (N, P and K) in potato plant leaves, stems and roots, as well as in the growth parameters. The treatment FCG shows the highest tuber yields (49.78 ton/ha) for potato plant in respect to control (16.44 ton/ha) whereas treatments FCG and G also promote an increase in tuber nitrates content (198, 243 mg kg-1 F. W., respectively). Analyses of soil organic matter and soil available nutrients were not significantly affected by the various treatments.
IMPROVING COMPOST QUALITY FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION.
A field experiment was conducted at ALHODA organic farm, Ismaillia Governorate, Egypt during the summer of 2002 to study the effect of different organic composted materials on the yield and nutrient contents of squash plant, as well as, soil nutrient levels (Ahmed G. El Gharably 2002).
Cow manure, chicken manure and crop residues were aerobically piled after screening, curing and grinding processes, then mixed in a ratio of 40 %, 20 % and 40 %, respectively. The pile has been divided into three parts, animal hoof and bone meal were separately applied to two portions of the pile and the third was left as a control without any addition. Mixture of rock phosphate and orthoclase was added to the bone meal and animal hood portions, separately in same quantities. The main objective of this experiment was to improve the compost quality that ALHODA farm uses by introducing new animal residues (bone meal and animal hoof) to the farm compost.
Three compost mixtures were prepared then incorporated to the sandy soil rows after 6 month composting at a rate of 20 tons/fed. Half of the experimental site was sprayed with effective microorganisms culture (EM). Treatments were replicated three times in a completely randomized block design. Soil samples were collected after 4 and 6 weeks from planting, and squash yield was also estimated. Some chemical properties of the soil were analyzed (pH, EC and O.M.). Also, N, P, K, Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu levels were determined. Meanwhile, plant samples were taken at the referred periods, dried, ground and digested to determine N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu. Also, compost materials were analyzed for their nutrient levels. The obtained results could be summarized as the following:
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